Urban air pollution and emergency room admissions for respiratory symptoms: a case-crossover study in Palermo, Italy

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Air pollution from vehicular traffic has been associated with respiratory diseases. In Palermo, the largest metropolitan area in Sicily, urban air pollution is mainly addressed to traffic-related pollution because of lack of industrial settlements, and the presence of a temperate climate that contribute to the limited use of domestic heating plants. This study aimed to investigate the association between traffic-related air pollution and emergency room admissions for acute respiratory symptoms.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>From January 2004 through December 2007, air pollutant concentrations and emergency room visits were collected for a case-crossover study conducted in Palermo, Sicily. Risk estimates of short-term exposures to particulate matter and gaseous ambient pollutants including carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide were calculated by using a conditional logistic regression analysis.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Emergency departments provided data on 48,519 visits for respiratory symptoms. Adjusted case-crossover analyses revealed stronger effects in the warm season for the most part of the pollutants considered, with a positive association for PM₁₀(odds ratio = 1.039, 95% confidence interval: 1.020 - 1.059), SO₂(OR = 1.068, 95% CI: 1.014 - 1.126), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂: OR = 1.043, 95% CI: 1.021 - 1.065), and CO (OR = 1.128, 95% CI: 1.074 - 1.184), especially among females (according to an increase of 10 μg/m³in PM₁₀, NO₂, SO₂, and 1 mg/m³in CO exposure). A positive association was observed either in warm or in cold season only for PM₁₀.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>Our findings suggest that, in our setting, exposure to ambient levels of air pollution is an important determinant of emergency room (ER) visits for acute respiratory symptoms, particularly during the warm season. ER admittance may be considered a good proxy to evaluate the adverse effects of air pollution on respiratory health.</p

State of the climate in 2013

In 2013, the vast majority of the monitored climate variables reported here maintained trends established in recent decades. ENSO was in a neutral state during the entire year, remaining mostly on the cool side of neutral with modest impacts on regional weather patterns around the world. This follows several years dominated by the effects of either La Niña or El Niño events. According to several independent analyses, 2013 was again among the 10 warmest years on record at the global scale, both at the Earths surface and through the troposphere. Some regions in the Southern Hemisphere had record or near-record high temperatures for the year. Australia observed its hottest year on record, while Argentina and New Zealand reported their second and third hottest years, respectively. In Antarctica, Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station reported its highest annual temperature since records began in 1957. At the opposite pole, the Arctic observed its seventh warmest year since records began in the early 20th century. At 20-m depth, record high temperatures were measured at some permafrost stations on the North Slope of Alaska and in the Brooks Range. In the Northern Hemisphere extratropics, anomalous meridional atmospheric circulation occurred throughout much of the year, leading to marked regional extremes of both temperature and precipitation. Cold temperature anomalies during winter across Eurasia were followed by warm spring temperature anomalies, which were linked to a new record low Eurasian snow cover extent in May. Minimum sea ice extent in the Arctic was the sixth lowest since satellite observations began in 1979. Including 2013, all seven lowest extents on record have occurred in the past seven years. Antarctica, on the other hand, had above-average sea ice extent throughout 2013, with 116 days of new daily high extent records, including a new daily maximum sea ice area of 19.57 million km2 reached on 1 October. ENSO-neutral conditions in the eastern central Pacific Ocean and a negative Pacific decadal oscillation pattern in the North Pacific had the largest impacts on the global sea surface temperature in 2013. The North Pacific reached a historic high temperature in 2013 and on balance the globally-averaged sea surface temperature was among the 10 highest on record. Overall, the salt content in nearsurface ocean waters increased while in intermediate waters it decreased. Global mean sea level continued to rise during 2013, on pace with a trend of 3.2 mm yr-1 over the past two decades. A portion of this trend (0.5 mm yr-1) has been attributed to natural variability associated with the Pacific decadal oscillation as well as to ongoing contributions from the melting of glaciers and ice sheets and ocean warming. Global tropical cyclone frequency during 2013 was slightly above average with a total of 94 storms, although the North Atlantic Basin had its quietest hurricane season since 1994. In the Western North Pacific Basin, Super Typhoon Haiyan, the deadliest tropical cyclone of 2013, had 1-minute sustained winds estimated to be 170 kt (87.5 m s-1) on 7 November, the highest wind speed ever assigned to a tropical cyclone. High storm surge was also associated with Haiyan as it made landfall over the central Philippines, an area where sea level is currently at historic highs, increasing by 200 mm since 1970. In the atmosphere, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide all continued to increase in 2013. As in previous years, each of these major greenhouse gases once again reached historic high concentrations. In the Arctic, carbon dioxide and methane increased at the same rate as the global increase. These increases are likely due to export from lower latitudes rather than a consequence of increases in Arctic sources, such as thawing permafrost. At Mauna Loa, Hawaii, for the first time since measurements began in 1958, the daily average mixing ratio of carbon dioxide exceeded 400 ppm on 9 May. The state of these variables, along with dozens of others, and the 2013 climate conditions of regions around the world are discussed in further detail in this 24th edition of the State of the Climate series. © 2014, American Meteorological Society. All rights reserved

Northern Eurasia Future Initiative (NEFI): facing the challenges and pathways of global change in the 21st century

During the past several decades, the Earth system has changed significantly, especially across Northern Eurasia. Changes in the socio-economic conditions of the larger countries in the region have also resulted in a variety of regional environmental changes that can have global consequences. The Northern Eurasia Future Initiative (NEFI) has been designed as an essential continuation of the Northern Eurasia Earth Science Partnership Initiative (NEESPI), which was launched in 2004. NEESPI sought to elucidate all aspects of ongoing environmental change, to inform societies and, thus, to better prepare societies for future developments. A key principle of NEFI is that these developments must now be secured through science-based strategies co-designed with regional decision makers to lead their societies to prosperity in the face of environmental and institutional challenges. NEESPI scientific research, data, and models have created a solid knowledge base to support the NEFI program. This paper presents the NEFI research vision consensus based on that knowledge. It provides the reader with samples of recent accomplishments in regional studies and formulates new NEFI science questions. To address these questions, nine research foci are identified and their selections are briefly justified. These foci include: warming of the Arctic; changing frequency, pattern, and intensity of extreme and inclement environmental conditions; retreat of the cryosphere; changes in terrestrial water cycles; changes in the biosphere; pressures on land-use; changes in infrastructure; societal actions in response to environmental change; and quantification of Northern Eurasia's role in the global Earth system. Powerful feedbacks between the Earth and human systems in Northern Eurasia (e.g., mega-fires, droughts, depletion of the cryosphere essential for water supply, retreat of sea ice) result from past and current human activities (e.g., large scale water withdrawals, land use and governance change) and potentially restrict or provide new opportunities for future human activities. Therefore, we propose that Integrated Assessment Models are needed as the final stage of global change assessment. The overarching goal of this NEFI modeling effort will enable evaluation of economic decisions in response to changing environmental conditions and justification of mitigation and adaptation efforts

Evolution of NOx emissions in Europe with focus on road transport control measures

European nitrogen oxides emissions have declined more than 30% since 1990, but are now increasing in eastern recovering economies. Road transport is the dominating source of NOx emissions since 1970, and with a 40% share in 2005. This paper presents the effect of NOx abatement on road traffic emissions in Europe and focuses on the causes behind trends since 1880 and up to present. Trends in road traffic NOx emissions are influenced both by policy and technological constrains and socio-economic development. Five trend regimes are identified in Europe. The first regime (1880-1950) is determined by a slow increase in fuel consumption. The second regime from 1950-1980 is characterized by a continued steep upward trend in liquid fuel use, but the changes with respect to the previous period are determined by the introduction of the first regulations on road traffic emissions. Reduction in fuel consumption influences the emission trends in the third regime from 1980 -1990. During this period, road emissions in Eastern Europe decrease due to recessive fuel consumption. Emissions from road traffic continue to grow in Western Europe from 1980 to 1990 despite the general decline and stabilisation in fuel consumption caused by the oil crisis in the 1970s. It is argued here that the reason for this continued Western European NOx emission increase is the introduction of measures to improve combustion and fuel efficiency, and to control HC and CO. The fourth regime (1990-2000) involves a turning point for road traffic emissions, with general decrease of emissions in Europe during that decade. In Eastern Europe, decrease in emissions is linked to decline in fuel consumption in Former Soviet Republics, and to a reduced share of high NOx emitting vehicles in other eastern European countries. At the same time, the efficiency of technological abatement in Western Europe is instrumental to control road traffic emissions in this region despite the increase in fuel consumption. In the last regime, from 2000 to 2005, the economic recovery in Eastern Europe implies new increases in road traffic emissions in this area. However, emissions in Western Europe continue to decrease, despite the increase in fuel consumption, due to the implementation of strict measures to control NOx emissions. The results indicate that even though the effectiveness of European standards is hampered by a slow vehicle turnover, loopholes in the type-approval testing and an increase in diesel consumption, the effect of such technical abatement measures is still traceable in the evolution of European road traffic emissions over the last 15 years

Direct short wave radiative forcing of sulfate aerosol over europe from 1900 to 2000

On the basis of historical simulations of the atmospheric distribution of sulfate aerosol over Europe, we have estimated the evolution of the direct shortwave radiative forcing due to sulfate aerosol from 1900 to the present day. Following the trend of atmospheric sulfate burden, the radiative forcing reaches its peak in the 1980s. Since then, environmental policies regulating SOx emissions successfully reduced the atmospheric load. On average, the forcing of the year 2000, representing present day, equals that of the 1950s. Spatially, the forcing maxima experienced a shift from the northwest to the southeast during the century. The ship emissions of sulfur keep increasing since the 1980s, hence their relative contribution to the sulfate load and radiative forcing constantly increased, from 3% in the 1980s to over 10% in the year 2000. Forcing is strongest during summertime, with a seasonal mean of −2.7 W m−2 in the 1980s and −1.2 W m−2 in summer 2000. The mean forcing efficiency is slightly reduced from −246 W (g sulfate)−1 in the 1900s to −230 W (g sulfate)−1 in the year 2000, and it declines with changed geographical distribution of sulfur emissions

Twenty-five years of continuous sulphur dioxide emission reduction in Europe

During the last twenty-five years European emission data have been compiled and reported under the Cooperative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe (EMEP) as part of the work under the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP). This paper presents emission trends of SO2 reported to EMEP and validated within the programme for the period 1980-2004. European sulphur emissions have been steadily decreasing over the last twenty-five years, amounting from about 55 Tg SO2 in 1980 to 15 Tg SO2 in 2004. The relative contribution of the European emissions to total global sulphur emissions has been halved during this period. Based on annual emission reports from European countries, three emission reduction regimes have been identified. The period 1980-1989 is characterized by low annual emission reductions (below 5% reduction per year and 20% for the whole period) and is dominated by emission reductions in Western Europe. The period 1990-1999 is characterised by high annual emission reductions (up to 11% reduction per year and 54% for the whole period), most pronounced in Eastern Europe. The annual emission reductions in the period 2000-2004 are medium to low and reflect the unified Europe, with equally large reductions in both East and West. The sulphur emission reduction has been largest in the Combustion in energy and transformation industries sector, but substantial decreases are also seen in the Non-industrial combustion plants together with Industrial Combustion and – Industrial Production Processes sectors. The majority of European countries have reduced their emissions by more than 60% between 1990 and 2004, and one quarter have already achieved sulphur emission reductions higher than 80%. At European level, the total sulphur target for 2010 set in the Gothenburg Protocol (16 Tg) has apparently already been met by 2004. However, still half of the Parties to the Gothenburg Protocol have to reduce further their sulphur emissions in order to attain their individual country total emission targets for 2010. It is also noteworthy that, contrasting the Gothenburg Protocol requirements, an increasing number of countries have recently been reporting increased sulphur emissions, while others report only minor decreases. The uncertainty in sulphur emission estimates is low, and although they are at the same level as recent reductions, the emission trends presented here are supported by different studies of air concentrations and depositions carried out within and outside the framework of the LTRAP Convention